A review on battery technology for space application

Author links open overlay panelAnil D. Pathak

, Shalakha Saha

, Vikram Kishore Bharti

, Mayur M. Gaikwad

, Chandra Shekhar SharmaShow moreAdd to MendeleyShareCite

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.106792Get rights and content

Highlights

• •Requirement of battery system for space application
• •Primary, secondary, and nuclear batteries for space application
• •Battery for planetary system, spacecraft, and extravehicular activity
• •Beyond Li-ion battery including LiS, Li-CO₂, and the nuclear battery for space application

Abstract

This review article comprehensively discusses the energy requirements and currently used energy storage systems for various space applications. We have explained the development of different battery technologies used in space missions, from conventional batteries (AgZn, NiCd, NiH₂), to lithium-ion batteries and beyond. Further, this article provides a detailed overview of the current development of lithium batteries concerning their different electrode and electrolyte system, which needs special consideration for enabling their use for space application. This review also provides an outlook on the battery technology development for interplanetary space missions enlisting the research emphasis to be directed to meet the special energy requirements during various stages of such missions. This review is an attempt to provide a one-step comprehensive overview for any researchers, scientists, batteries manufacturers, and space agencies to first understand the current requirements critically and, accordingly, the solutions to prepare a future roadmap to develop highly efficient, next-generation advanced energy storage systems to mitigate the technical challenges and at the same time, minimizing the cost associated.

Graphical abstract

Introduction

After World War II, the Soviet Union established its missile programs and launched the first artificial satellite, “Sputnik 1,” into space powered by silver‑zinc batteries [1]. Currently, nearly 98 space agencies [2] are working on space applications such as planetary exploration, meteorology, navigation, remote sensing of Earth’s surface, providing global military forces with various warfare systems for air defense, telecommunications, and data transmission via satellites, etc. Besides, private companies (e.g., SpaceX, Blue Origin, Virgin Galactic) and other space agencies are starting to push space technologies for different applications such as space tourism, space-based power generation, the manufacturing of high-value materials in a microgravity environment, and the commercial development of extra-terrestrial resources [3], [4]. In all this, an energy storage system (e.g., battery) with a primary energy source (e.g., photovoltaic) is a critical component of the spacecraft that ensures optimum operation and provides uninterrupted power coverage during the mission. The crucial aspects of achieving the mission goals of space science and exploration are energy and power storage to ensure the longevity of their operations. Currently, the total energy source and storage system of the spacecraft requirements comprises nearly 28 %, directly related to the overall mission feasibility and cost.

There are three basic methods for energy storage in spacecraft such as chemical (e.g., batteries), mechanical (flywheels), and nuclear (e.g., radioisotope thermoelectric generator or nuclear battery) [5]. The operational length of the spacecraft of a mission, such as the number of science experiments to perform, the exploration of geological, terrestrial, and atmosphere, is dictated by the amount of energy provided by these energy storage sources. The specific energy of a flywheel is limited due to the tensile strength of the rotor material; therefore, this technology has never been used in space [6]. But it may have advantages in other space applications, such as low-Earth orbital missions requiring a re-usable energy storage capability of 5 KWh or more [7]. Primary and secondary batteries powered by photovoltaic or a nuclear radioisotope-based electric generator are mainly used as a space energy storage technology [7]. The critical role of these energy storages in the aerospace application is to provide power [8] (i) for satellites, extravehicular activities, planetary landers, and rovers during night-time or peak power operations; (ii) during launch and post-launch until the deployment of solar panels; (iii) for firing pyros and firing rockets for attitude control; (iv) during cruise anomalies or trajectory control maneuvers of the spacecraft; (v) to the spacecraft, its equipment, and payload during Sun eclipse periods; (vi) for night time or eclipse-time experimentation; (vii) for payloads, launch vehicles, and portable devices; (viii) for communication and data transmission; and (ix) to keep the electronics within a specified temperature range.

The energy storage system required for these missions largely depends on the particular type of space application. For instance, satellite batteries used in geostationary earth orbit (GEO) preferably require 180 cycles per year, whereas medium earth orbit (MEO) requires 5500 cycles per year. Jupiter and its moon’s planetary mission require a power system that should be tolerant to high-intensity radiation, about 4 Mrad, of γ-radiation [9]. Contrarily, Mars and Venus’s planetary missions require a power system that can operate under extreme temperatures, such as −120 °C low temperature for Mars and 475 °C high temperature for Venus [10]. Thus, the selection of energy storage systems majorly depends on the type of mission (e.g., orbital, aerial, surface, or subsurface exploration), the environment being explored (pressure, temperature, radiation), and spacecraft functionality (e.g., orbiters, landers and rovers, and probes). Therefore, no single battery chemistry/system can fulfil all these complex requirements.

Different battery systems, such as primary, secondary, and nuclear batteries, are designed to meet these requirements. Here, the source of energy generation is a critical factor in selecting these energy storage (battery) systems. Nuclear batteries are usually preferred for the outer planets as these planets are away from the Sun, and the sun’s intensity to produce power is insufficient. Contrarily, primary and secondary batteries charged with photovoltaic arrays are usually preferred for near planets where sufficient solar intensity is available to generate power with smaller arrays without a bulky system. The primary batteries used for space applications include AgZn, Li-SO₂, Li-SOCl₂, Li-BC_X, Li-CFx, and secondary rechargeable batteries are AgZn NiCd, NiH_2, and Li-ion.

In these battery systems, the AgZn battery was used in the early days of space missions such as the Russian spacecraft “Sputnik” and the US spacecraft “Ranger 3” [11]. The advantage of the selection of the AgZn battery was mainly due to its high specific power for long (600 W kg⁻¹) and short (2500 W kg⁻¹) duration pulses [12]. Currently, AgZn battery chemistry is still being used for space applications such as thrust vector control, pyrotechnics, propulsion subsystem, and flight termination system (FTS) power. In 1960, the NiCd battery became the most popular battery system for space applications which was used to provide power to the spacecraft for five years with >30,000 cycles requirements. NiCd batteries were used in Solar Max and Landsat D Missions and were used initially for GEO spacecraft applications [13]. In 1980, the NiH₂ battery was used for the space application, which has almost two-time higher specific energy over the NiCd due to the hydrogen electrode use over the cadmium electrode present in the NiCd battery. Nickel hydrogen batteries are mostly explored for long-life operations such as 15 years with 60,000 partial depth-of-discharge cycles [11]. It is primarily used in GEO spacecraft missions such as Hubble Space Telescope, USAF, Intelsat V, etc. Nowadays, there has been a lot of use of Lithium batteries in space applications, including planetary missions, GEO and low earth orbit (LEO) spacecraft, and Lander and rovers because of their compactness, lightweight, and high specific energy and power density. Various developments in this battery system are ongoing, but these efforts mainly focus on portable electronics, electric vehicles, and grid applications. There is no particular attention to enabling their applications further for specific space application requirements.

To understand these requirements, let’s first examine the various planetary missions carried out on different planets of our solar system. Emphasis is laid on the different battery chemistries as energy storage systems employed to overcome the operational challenges offered by the atmospheric conditions of these planets to the spacecraft. A comprehensive overview of the various inner and outer planetary missions launched by the world’s different space agencies, focussing on battery chemistries, is presented. Battery chemistries used for the extreme operating conditions in the missions directed to the exploration of natural satellites of various planets, extravehicular activities, and several spacecraft applications are also stated. In the next section, we focus on the technological development of different battery systems for space applications, namely primary and secondary. The development in the Li-ion-based rechargeable battery technology and beyond, including LiS, Li-CO₂, and the nuclear battery, is enlisted and discussed in detail after that.

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Section snippets

Classification of planetary missions

In this section, we have classified the application of batteries for space missions into six categories: (i) inner planet; (ii) outer planet; (iii) natural satellite; (iv) minor planet; (v) spacecraft (LEO, GEO, MEO); and (vi) extravehicular activity (EVA), as shown in Fig. 1.

Different types of battery technology development for space application

This section is mainly focused on the different battery technologies such as primary, rechargeable (specially Li-ion battery in details), and nuclear battery for development/utilization for various space applications.

Outlook

Batteries are an essential part of the spacecraft when considering space exploration missions. Space operations and all the electronics, scientific equipment, and communications largely depend on the onboard battery power. Li-based primary batteries with high specific energy displays promise to be used as a power source in deep space exploration missions under extreme operating conditions.

The rechargeable batteries are charged by solar photovoltaics when sunlight is available, and their power

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests: Chandra Shekhar Sharma reports financial support was provided by India Ministry of Science & Technology Department of Science and Technology. All the authors have complied with ethical requirements of Elsevier publication. We have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

Acknowledgment

CSS acknowledges the financial support from the DST and SERB Swarna Jayanti Fellowship (SB/SJF/2020-21/13), Government of India.

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